Switching to Silicon

America’s high-tech home might have been “Germanium Valley” if named for the material in early transistors. Silicon offered better performance, but was too hard to work with.

That changed in 1954. “Contrary to what my colleagues have told you about the bleak prospects for silicon transistors,” announced Texas Instruments’ Gordon Teal at a conference, “I happen to have a few of them here.” He then demonstrated a record player that failed when its germanium transistors were heated, but not with silicon transistors.

By 1960, most transistors were silicon. TI was their leading manufacturer.

The silicon transistor’s ability to operate at temperatures up to 150°C made it an essential component in U.S. space and defense programs.

Mass Producing Semiconductors

Manufacturing semiconductors commercially isn’t like making them in a lab. Production must be cost effective and materials pure to one part in ten billion—less than a pinch of salt in three freight cars of sugar.

Better crystal growing and refining techniques brought bigger wafers and higher quality. Innovations in complex fabrication processes, such as oxide masking, photolithography, high-temperature diffusion, ion-implantation, film deposition, and etching, increased yields and improved reliability.

High-volume assembly of transistors and diodes in miniature packages, together with sophisticated testing equipment, reduced costs and increased production to meet growing demand.